Verbal systems

The basic distinctions of mood, reality status, modality, tense and aspect in English are set out in Table 2.2, together with illustrative examples involving the verb swim. Modal and semi-modal verbs, which express modalities within irrealis. Note that is -ing, often called ‘progressive’ or ‘continuous’, is here termed ‘imperfective’ (as opposed to -s, the ‘perfect- imperative mood, used in commands; base form of the verb: Swim! non-imperative mood, used in statements and questions: He has swum; Has he swum?

irrealis status, something which is uncertain in the future, or was unrealized in the past

nine modalities, expressed by modal and/or semi-modal verbs, for example, Prediction She will swim, Imminent activity She is about to swim

each may be further specified by perfective/imperfective and actual/ previous aspects; for example She will have been swimming

realis status, something which has reality in past, present or future time

generic tense: Ducks swim

future tense

            established aspect: We swim in the race tomorrow

            particular aspect: We’re swimming in the river tomorrow

present tense

             actual perfective aspect: She swims

             actual imperfective aspect: She is swimming

             previous perfective aspect: She has swum

             previous imperfective aspect: She has been swimming

past tense

actual perfective aspect: She swam

actual imperfective aspect: She was swimming

previous perfective aspect: She had swum

previous imperfective aspect: She had been swimming

ive’). The term ‘perfect’ has traditionally been used for has -en, but this does not accord with the general linguistic meaning of ‘perfect’—to describe ‘an action, etc. considered as a completed whole’. Has -en is here termed ‘previous’ aspect, as opposed to ‘actual’ aspect -s. The terms are justified—and the aspectual systems will be explained and illustrated.