

Grammar


Tenses


Present

Present Simple

Present Continuous

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous


Past

Past Simple

Past Continuous

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous


Future

Future Simple

Future Continuous

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous


Parts Of Speech


Nouns

Countable and uncountable nouns

Verbal nouns

Singular and Plural nouns

Proper nouns

Nouns gender

Nouns definition

Concrete nouns

Abstract nouns

Common nouns

Collective nouns

Definition Of Nouns

Animate and Inanimate nouns

Nouns


Verbs

Stative and dynamic verbs

Finite and nonfinite verbs

To be verbs

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Auxiliary verbs

Modal verbs

Regular and irregular verbs

Action verbs

Verbs


Adverbs

Relative adverbs

Interrogative adverbs

Adverbs of time

Adverbs of place

Adverbs of reason

Adverbs of quantity

Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of frequency

Adverbs of affirmation

Adverbs


Adjectives

Quantitative adjective

Proper adjective

Possessive adjective

Numeral adjective

Interrogative adjective

Distributive adjective

Descriptive adjective

Demonstrative adjective


Pronouns

Subject pronoun

Relative pronoun

Reflexive pronoun

Reciprocal pronoun

Possessive pronoun

Personal pronoun

Interrogative pronoun

Indefinite pronoun

Emphatic pronoun

Distributive pronoun

Demonstrative pronoun

Pronouns


Pre Position


Preposition by function

Time preposition

Reason preposition

Possession preposition

Place preposition

Phrases preposition

Origin preposition

Measure preposition

Direction preposition

Contrast preposition

Agent preposition


Preposition by construction

Simple preposition

Phrase preposition

Double preposition

Compound preposition

prepositions


Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunction

Correlative conjunction

Coordinating conjunction

Conjunctive adverbs

conjunctions


Interjections

Express calling interjection

Phrases

Sentences


Grammar Rules

Passive and Active

Preference

Requests and offers

wishes

Be used to

Some and any

Could have done

Describing people

Giving advices

Possession

Comparative and superlative

Giving Reason

Making Suggestions

Apologizing

Forming questions

Since and for

Directions

Obligation

Adverbials

invitation

Articles

Imaginary condition

Zero conditional

First conditional

Second conditional

Third conditional

Reported speech

Demonstratives

Determiners


Linguistics

Phonetics

Phonology

Linguistics fields

Syntax

Morphology

Semantics

pragmatics

History

Writing

Grammar

Phonetics and Phonology

Semiotics


Reading Comprehension

Elementary

Intermediate

Advanced


Teaching Methods

Teaching Strategies

Assessment
Descriptive or prescriptive?
المؤلف:
David Hornsby
المصدر:
Linguistics A complete introduction
الجزء والصفحة:
17-1
2023-12-09
1117
Descriptive or prescriptive?
You have learned that linguists see their task as describing language and attempting to find explanations for real language data, rather than telling people how they should speak: linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. In this connection we saw that there are two kinds of rule. It’s a descriptive syntactic rule of English that the house is grammatical, but not *house the1 (a structure which is fine in Swedish and Bulgarian), because no English speaker would naturally say this. Similarly it’s a descriptive rule of English phonology that no word can begin with the sequence *vdr-, which is a perfectly acceptable word-initial sequence in Russian.
Rules of the ‘don’t split infinitives’ kind, on the other hand, are prescriptive, in that they set out what purists think speakers ought to do. Prescriptive rules are generally associated with the usage of a dominant or prestige group, and are generally reinforced by the formal education system: that they need to be, of course, is a sure indication that they are often transgressed. A linguist’s first task is to describe the rules that a native speaker unconsciously obeys, whether or not these correspond to those of standard usage. In doing so, linguists accord primacy to speech because children acquire language through hearing and speaking before learning to read and write, and because conventional writing systems are at best an inconsistent and poor reflection of that speech. These two principles are fundamental to linguistics, and if you’ve grasped them, congratulations! You’re starting to think like a linguist.
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