Grammar
Tenses
Present
Present Simple
Present Continuous
Present Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous
Past
Past Continuous
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous
Past Simple
Future
Future Simple
Future Continuous
Future Perfect
Future Perfect Continuous
Passive and Active
Parts Of Speech
Nouns
Countable and uncountable nouns
Verbal nouns
Singular and Plural nouns
Proper nouns
Nouns gender
Nouns definition
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
Common nouns
Collective nouns
Definition Of Nouns
Verbs
Stative and dynamic verbs
Finite and nonfinite verbs
To be verbs
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Auxiliary verbs
Modal verbs
Regular and irregular verbs
Action verbs
Adverbs
Relative adverbs
Interrogative adverbs
Adverbs of time
Adverbs of place
Adverbs of reason
Adverbs of quantity
Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of affirmation
Adjectives
Quantitative adjective
Proper adjective
Possessive adjective
Numeral adjective
Interrogative adjective
Distributive adjective
Descriptive adjective
Demonstrative adjective
Pronouns
Subject pronoun
Relative pronoun
Reflexive pronoun
Reciprocal pronoun
Possessive pronoun
Personal pronoun
Interrogative pronoun
Indefinite pronoun
Emphatic pronoun
Distributive pronoun
Demonstrative pronoun
Pre Position
Preposition by function
Time preposition
Reason preposition
Possession preposition
Place preposition
Phrases preposition
Origin preposition
Measure preposition
Direction preposition
Contrast preposition
Agent preposition
Preposition by construction
Simple preposition
Phrase preposition
Double preposition
Compound preposition
Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunction
Correlative conjunction
Coordinating conjunction
Conjunctive adverbs
Interjections
Express calling interjection
Grammar Rules
Preference
Requests and offers
wishes
Be used to
Some and any
Could have done
Describing people
Giving advices
Possession
Comparative and superlative
Giving Reason
Making Suggestions
Apologizing
Forming questions
Since and for
Directions
Obligation
Adverbials
invitation
Articles
Imaginary condition
Zero conditional
First conditional
Second conditional
Third conditional
Reported speech
Linguistics
Phonetics
Phonology
Semantics
Pragmatics
Linguistics fields
Syntax
Morphology
Semantics
pragmatics
History
Writing
Grammar
Phonetics and Phonology
Semiotics
Reading Comprehension
Elementary
Intermediate
Advanced
Teaching Methods
Teaching Strategies
Lexicon
المؤلف:
Terry Crowley
المصدر:
A Handbook Of Varieties Of English Phonology
الجزء والصفحة:
674-38
2024-04-26
1103
Lexicon
Although the lexicon of Bislama is predominantly English in origin, there is nevertheless a substantial minority of words which derive from other sources (compare Crowley 1995 for a fairly comprehensive and up-to-date dictionary of Bislama). About 3.75% of the total number of entries in the Bislama lexicon derive from local vernacular sources (e.g. /nakamal/ ‘meeting house’, /nawita/ ‘octopus’, /nawimba/ ‘Pacific pigeon’), while between 6% and 12% derive from French (e.g. /masut/ ‘diesel’ < mazout, /pamplimus/ ‘grapefruit’ < pamplemousse), and about 0.25% of the lexicon derives from a variety of other sources (e.g. /pikinini/ ‘child’ < Portuguese pequenho ‘small’ via South Seas Jargon, /burau/ ‘Hibiscus tiliaceus’ < Tahitian , /nalnal/ ‘club’ < Early Australian Aboriginal Pidgin nalanala). The range 6–12% for words of French origin rather than a fixed figure is because the forms of a substantial number of words are ambiguous betweeen an English and a French origin, e.g. /sigaret/ < cigarette, /plastik/ < English plastic or French plastique, /letrik/ < English electric or French électrique.
Melanesian etyma are most widely encountered in semantic fields for which neither English nor French provided terms which were readily accessible to Europeans in the early contact situation (or since). We therefore find a substantial number of names for local flora and fauna being expressed by means of words of local origin, e.g. /nakavika/ ‘Malay apple’, /nakatambol/ ‘dragon plum’, /naŋai/ ‘native almond’, /natora/ ‘island teak’, /nasiviru/ ‘coconut lory’, /natamap/ ‘castrated boar’. Terminology relating to Melanesian cultural practices and artefacts is also often expressed by words of local origin, e.g. /nakaimas/ ‘sorcerer’, /nakamal/ ‘meeting house’, /nimaŋgi/ ‘grade-taking ceremony’, /nasama/ ‘outrigger (of canoe)’, /laplap/ ‘type of food’. It should be noted that nouns of Melanesian origin are often, though by no means always, incorporated into Bislama with the widely distributed noun phrase marker proclitic (or prefix) /na-/ reanalyzed as an invariant part of the noun.
French etyma are distributed across a wider range of semantic fields, making it more difficult to predict what meanings are likely to be expressed by means of words of English origin and which will be expressed by words of French origin. Some words of French origin clearly relate in a variety of ways to the French colonial presence, either through administrative terminology such as /delege/ ‘French district agent’ < délégué, /lameri/ ‘town hall’ < la mairie, terminology associated with Catholicism such as /lames/ ‘mass’ < la messe, /per/ ‘priest’ < père, or terminology associated with fine cuisine and restaurant dining such as /lai/ ‘garlic’ < l’ail, /pima/ ‘chilli’ < piment, /susut/ ‘choko’ < chouchoutte, /gato/ ‘cake’ < gateau. It will be noted once again that nouns from French are often incorporated into Bislama with the preposed definite article le or la attached as an inseparable part of the noun itself as /le-/ or /la-/.
However, other meanings seem to be fairly unpredictably expressed by means of words of French or English origin. It is difficult, for example, to see why the children’s game of tag should be referred to in Bislama as /lelu/ (< French le loup) rather than by a word of English origin, or why some playing cards are referred to by words of French origin (e.g. /las/ ‘ace’ < l’ace, /pik/ ‘spades’ < pique) while others are referred to by means of English etyma (e.g. /daiman/ ‘diamonds’, /hat/ ‘hearts’). It should also be noted that there is a substantial number of synonymous pairs involving words of both English and French origin, e.g. /ariko/ (< French haricot) and /bin/ ‘bean’, /pistas/ (< French pistache) and /pinat/ ‘peanut’, /lapul/ (< French l’ampoule) and /glop/ ‘light globe’.
The bulk of the Bislama lexicon, however, is clearly of English origin. In some cases, either the form or the meaning of an English word, or both, has been substantially changed in Bislama (or the English form from which a Bislama word has been derived is now seldom used in modern English). We therefore find examples such as /purumbut/ ‘step on’ (< put ‘im foot), /kolta/ ‘bitumen’ (< coal tar), /giaman/ ‘tell lies’ (< nineteenth-century Australian English gammon), /solmit/ ‘promiscuous’ (< salt-meat).
In yet other cases, the English source of a Bislama form is immediately obvious, though the meaning may have been substantially modified, often under the direct influence of vernacular semantic patterns. Thus, Bislama /han/ comes from English hand, but it translates as both ‘arm’ and ‘hand’, following the widespread lack of separate terms for these meanings in vernaculars. In the same way, Bislama /lek/ (from English leg) covers the meaning of both ‘leg’ and ‘foot’ in English.
There is a substantial component of the lexicon involving words that are ultimately based on English lexical sources yet which have been compounded creatively by speakers of Bislama to express meanings without having to resort to direct lexical copying from English. During the Second World War, for example, when Ni-Vanuatu were first exposed to grenades through their association with American troups, they coined their own term for this, i.e. /hanbom/ < /han/ ‘hand/ arm’ + /bom/ ‘bomb’. The same pattern has been used for the more recent coinage /roketbom/ ‘missile’ < /roket/ ‘rocket’ + /bom/ ‘bomb’. Local flora and fauna also often came to be referred to by means of such compound terms, e.g. /blufis/ ‘parrotfish’ < /blu/ ‘blue’ + /fis/ ‘fish’, /retwut/ ‘Java cedar’ < /ret/ ‘red’ + /wut/ ‘wood’.
الاكثر قراءة في Phonology
اخر الاخبار
اخبار العتبة العباسية المقدسة

الآخبار الصحية
