

Grammar


Tenses


Present

Present Simple

Present Continuous

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous


Past

Past Simple

Past Continuous

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous


Future

Future Simple

Future Continuous

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous


Parts Of Speech


Nouns

Countable and uncountable nouns

Verbal nouns

Singular and Plural nouns

Proper nouns

Nouns gender

Nouns definition

Concrete nouns

Abstract nouns

Common nouns

Collective nouns

Definition Of Nouns

Animate and Inanimate nouns

Nouns


Verbs

Stative and dynamic verbs

Finite and nonfinite verbs

To be verbs

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Auxiliary verbs

Modal verbs

Regular and irregular verbs

Action verbs

Verbs


Adverbs

Relative adverbs

Interrogative adverbs

Adverbs of time

Adverbs of place

Adverbs of reason

Adverbs of quantity

Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of frequency

Adverbs of affirmation

Adverbs


Adjectives

Quantitative adjective

Proper adjective

Possessive adjective

Numeral adjective

Interrogative adjective

Distributive adjective

Descriptive adjective

Demonstrative adjective


Pronouns

Subject pronoun

Relative pronoun

Reflexive pronoun

Reciprocal pronoun

Possessive pronoun

Personal pronoun

Interrogative pronoun

Indefinite pronoun

Emphatic pronoun

Distributive pronoun

Demonstrative pronoun

Pronouns


Pre Position


Preposition by function

Time preposition

Reason preposition

Possession preposition

Place preposition

Phrases preposition

Origin preposition

Measure preposition

Direction preposition

Contrast preposition

Agent preposition


Preposition by construction

Simple preposition

Phrase preposition

Double preposition

Compound preposition

prepositions


Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunction

Correlative conjunction

Coordinating conjunction

Conjunctive adverbs

conjunctions


Interjections

Express calling interjection

Phrases

Sentences


Grammar Rules

Passive and Active

Preference

Requests and offers

wishes

Be used to

Some and any

Could have done

Describing people

Giving advices

Possession

Comparative and superlative

Giving Reason

Making Suggestions

Apologizing

Forming questions

Since and for

Directions

Obligation

Adverbials

invitation

Articles

Imaginary condition

Zero conditional

First conditional

Second conditional

Third conditional

Reported speech

Demonstratives

Determiners


Linguistics

Phonetics

Phonology

Linguistics fields

Syntax

Morphology

Semantics

pragmatics

History

Writing

Grammar

Phonetics and Phonology

Semiotics


Reading Comprehension

Elementary

Intermediate

Advanced


Teaching Methods

Teaching Strategies

Assessment
Consonants
المؤلف:
APRIL McMAHON
المصدر:
LEXICAL PHONOLOGY AND THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH
الجزء والصفحة:
145-4
2024-12-09
1187
Consonants
Varieties of English tend to be both conservative and markedly similar in their consonant systems. There are, however, some minor consonantal differences between Scots and SSE on one hand, and RP or GenAm on the other.
First, Scots and SSE retain the voiceless velar fricative /x/, which other English dialects have lost since Middle English. The distribution of /x/ is limited, and it tends to occur in distinctively Scots lexical items like loch, dreich; place and personal names such as Auchtermuchty, Tulloch, Stra-chan; and sometimes in words originally borrowed from Greek or Hebrew which have <ch>, like epoch [ipɔx] or parochial [paroxiəl]. In Insular Scots, it also commonly occurs in an initial cluster with /w/ in place of other Scots and SSE /kw/ - so question is [xwεstʃən] and queer is [xwi:r].
Scots dialects and SSE also have the voiceless labio-velar fricative /ʍ/ (sometimes symbolized /hw/), which contrasts with /w/ in minimal pairs like Wales /w/ versus whales /ʍ/, or witch /w/ versus which /ʍ/. /ʍ/ is found in most words with 5wh4 spellings, although as Wells (1982: 409) observes, <w> spellings sometimes correspond to [ʍ] pronunciations, as in south-east Scots weasel [ʍi:zl], or <wh> to [w], as in whelk [wΛlk]. In Northern Scots, /ʍ/ has become a voiceless labial or labio dental fricative, [ɸ] or [f], in all contexts, producing such characteristic Aberdeenshire pronunciations as [fe:r] `where' and [fa:] `who'.
A final difference concerns the distribution of /r/. Both RP and Scots/ SSE have this phoneme, but because Scots and SSE are rhotic, its functional load here is far greater. As for realization, very few Scots now consistently use trilled [r], although this is found occasionally in the north. The most common allophonic variants are the alveolar tap [ɾ] and the post-alveolar approximant [ɹ]; Wells (1982: 411) suggests that the tap often appears in the environments V-V and C-V, and the approximant V-C and V- #, with either initially.
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