x
هدف البحث
بحث في العناوين
بحث في المحتوى
بحث في اسماء الكتب
بحث في اسماء المؤلفين
اختر القسم
موافق
Grammar
Tenses
Present
Present Simple
Present Continuous
Present Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous
Past
Past Continuous
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous
Past Simple
Future
Future Simple
Future Continuous
Future Perfect
Future Perfect Continuous
Passive and Active
Parts Of Speech
Nouns
Countable and uncountable nouns
Verbal nouns
Singular and Plural nouns
Proper nouns
Nouns gender
Nouns definition
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
Common nouns
Collective nouns
Definition Of Nouns
Verbs
Stative and dynamic verbs
Finite and nonfinite verbs
To be verbs
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Auxiliary verbs
Modal verbs
Regular and irregular verbs
Action verbs
Adverbs
Relative adverbs
Interrogative adverbs
Adverbs of time
Adverbs of place
Adverbs of reason
Adverbs of quantity
Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of affirmation
Adjectives
Quantitative adjective
Proper adjective
Possessive adjective
Numeral adjective
Interrogative adjective
Distributive adjective
Descriptive adjective
Demonstrative adjective
Pronouns
Subject pronoun
Relative pronoun
Reflexive pronoun
Reciprocal pronoun
Possessive pronoun
Personal pronoun
Interrogative pronoun
Indefinite pronoun
Emphatic pronoun
Distributive pronoun
Demonstrative pronoun
Pre Position
Preposition by function
Time preposition
Reason preposition
Possession preposition
Place preposition
Phrases preposition
Origin preposition
Measure preposition
Direction preposition
Contrast preposition
Agent preposition
Preposition by construction
Simple preposition
Phrase preposition
Double preposition
Compound preposition
Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunction
Correlative conjunction
Coordinating conjunction
Conjunctive adverbs
Interjections
Express calling interjection
Grammar Rules
Preference
Requests and offers
wishes
Be used to
Some and any
Could have done
Describing people
Giving advices
Possession
Comparative and superlative
Giving Reason
Making Suggestions
Apologizing
Forming questions
Since and for
Directions
Obligation
Adverbials
invitation
Articles
Imaginary condition
Zero conditional
First conditional
Second conditional
Third conditional
Reported speech
Linguistics
Phonetics
Phonology
Semantics
Pragmatics
Linguistics fields
Syntax
Morphology
Semantics
pragmatics
History
Writing
Grammar
literature
Reading Comprehension
Elementary
Intermediate
Advanced
Fricatives
المؤلف: Magnus Huber
المصدر: A Handbook Of Varieties Of English Phonology
الجزء والصفحة: 858-47
2024-05-11
73
As in many other varieties of English, RP /θ, ð/ are often replaced by the dental or alveolar plosives or they are dropped altogether in word-final position.
Some speakers also produce affricated versions, [tθ, dð] as in nothing [natθiŋ] or they [dðei]. Replacement or deletion of the dental fricatives are especially frequent in more informal and mesolectal/basilectal varieties, but they are not altogether unknown even in very formal GhE, particularly the affricated variants. Again, one and the same speaker may vary between [θ,ð] and the corresponding GhE plosives or affricates, so that at least for acrolectal speakers an underlying / θ, ð/ can be assumed in words like thousand [θausεn ~ tθausεn ~ tausεn] or gathering [gaðεrin ~ gadðεrin ~ gadεrin]. In her study of the use of dental fricatives among students at the University of Ghana, Dako (forthcoming) found that women are more likely than men to retain RP dental fricatives (87% of the women were classed as /θ/-retainers and 65% as retainers of /ð/, as opposed to 53% and 37%, respectively, of the men).
Word-final /-θ/ is sometimes replaced by [-f] in words like bath, cloth, mouth, with, eighth. Again, Dako (forthcoming) showed that women prefer the standard form: only 16% of the female informants used word-final [-f], in contrast to 54% of the males.
Akan does not have the postalveolar fricatives /ʃ/ and /Ʒ/ , but the rather similar voiceless palato-alveolar fricative occurs as an allophone of /h/ before front vowels. Furthermore, speakers of Akan are familiar with its voiced counterpart from its occurrence in an allophone of /g/. Ghanaians regularly use as substitutes for BrE /ʃ , Ʒ/ , e.g. in official , issue , sure . Note that in contrast to the RP version of these words – /əfɪʃl, ɪʃju:, ʃʊə/ – GhE inserts an epenthetic [i] between and a following back vowel, in keeping with the allophonic distribution of this fricative in Akan (which occurs only before front vowels).
Interestingly, the substitution of for /ʃ , Ʒ/ is not only restricted to speakers whose L1 is Akan but can also be observed in the English of speakers of other Ghanaian languages, the majority of which does not have /ʃ , Ʒ/ or phonetically near-identical substitutes (although in some languages these sounds have allophonic status). Therefore, a good number of non-Akans have adopted as substitutes for RP [ʃ , Ʒ]. It seems that this phonetic detail has become a truly national, if subconscious, feature of GhE, transcending mother tongue boundaries. However, it has to be pointed out that educated speakers vary between and [ʃ , Ʒ], depending on their level of education and phonetic competence. Still others replace RP /ʃ/ by [s], for example in machine [masin]. These are predominantly speakers whose L1 does not have /ʃ/ (like Frafra) and who have had little schooling and/or little exposure to educated GhE. Probably as a reaction to this stigmatized /ʃ/ > [s] variant, hypercorrect forms like nursery or bursary [bεʃri] are not uncommon, even among educated Ghanaians.
As indicated on plosives, there is a tendency in GhE to devoice final obstruents: end [εnt], Lord [lɔt], news [nius], world [wεlt], etc. On the other hand, obstruents often get voiced in voiced environments – in intervocalic position (pieces [piziz], taxable [tagzabu]), but also if voiced consonants are involved (bursary [bεzri], pencils [pεnzils]). Such voicing can also be observed across word boundaries, cf. what about [hwad abaut] or first degree [fεz digri] or if Ghanaians [iv ganeεns]. As these examples show, it seems that the sibilants /s/ and /ʃ/ are particularly, though not exclusively, affected by this process.
At the same time, hypercorrection with regard to final devoicing can lead to pronunciations like dance [dãz] or process [prosεz]. Such voicing is possibly supported by the fact that final obstruents may become voiced when the following word starts with a voiced sound. Similarly, overgeneralized reversal of voicing leads to hypercorrect vision [viʃin] etc.