Grammar
Tenses
Present
Present Simple
Present Continuous
Present Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous
Past
Past Continuous
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous
Past Simple
Future
Future Simple
Future Continuous
Future Perfect
Future Perfect Continuous
Passive and Active
Parts Of Speech
Nouns
Countable and uncountable nouns
Verbal nouns
Singular and Plural nouns
Proper nouns
Nouns gender
Nouns definition
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
Common nouns
Collective nouns
Definition Of Nouns
Verbs
Stative and dynamic verbs
Finite and nonfinite verbs
To be verbs
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Auxiliary verbs
Modal verbs
Regular and irregular verbs
Action verbs
Adverbs
Relative adverbs
Interrogative adverbs
Adverbs of time
Adverbs of place
Adverbs of reason
Adverbs of quantity
Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of affirmation
Adjectives
Quantitative adjective
Proper adjective
Possessive adjective
Numeral adjective
Interrogative adjective
Distributive adjective
Descriptive adjective
Demonstrative adjective
Pronouns
Subject pronoun
Relative pronoun
Reflexive pronoun
Reciprocal pronoun
Possessive pronoun
Personal pronoun
Interrogative pronoun
Indefinite pronoun
Emphatic pronoun
Distributive pronoun
Demonstrative pronoun
Pre Position
Preposition by function
Time preposition
Reason preposition
Possession preposition
Place preposition
Phrases preposition
Origin preposition
Measure preposition
Direction preposition
Contrast preposition
Agent preposition
Preposition by construction
Simple preposition
Phrase preposition
Double preposition
Compound preposition
Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunction
Correlative conjunction
Coordinating conjunction
Conjunctive adverbs
Interjections
Express calling interjection
Grammar Rules
Preference
Requests and offers
wishes
Be used to
Some and any
Could have done
Describing people
Giving advices
Possession
Comparative and superlative
Giving Reason
Making Suggestions
Apologizing
Forming questions
Since and for
Directions
Obligation
Adverbials
invitation
Articles
Imaginary condition
Zero conditional
First conditional
Second conditional
Third conditional
Reported speech
Linguistics
Phonetics
Phonology
Semantics
Pragmatics
Linguistics fields
Syntax
Morphology
Semantics
pragmatics
History
Writing
Grammar
Phonetics and Phonology
Reading Comprehension
Elementary
Intermediate
Advanced
Using performatives
المؤلف: David Hornsby
المصدر: Linguistics A complete introduction
الجزء والصفحة: 214-10
2024-01-01
657
Using performatives
Verbs such as promise, declare, bet, swear, order, which constitute an action by virtue of being uttered, are called performatives. To be used appropriately, their relevant felicity conditions must be met, otherwise a misfire or an abuse will result.
Austin argues that, in the case of performative sentences, we need to look for the set of appropriate conditions that must be met for them to be uttered ‘felicitously’, i.e. for the sentence to work in context. These have become known as felicity conditions, and they fall into three main categories (see Levinson 1993: 229; after Austin 1962: 14–15):
A.
(i) There must be a conventional procedure having a conventional effect.
(ii) The circumstances and persons must be appropriate, as specified in the procedure.
B. The procedure must be executed
(i) correctly and
(ii) completely.
C. Often
(i) the persons must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, as specified in the procedure, and
(ii) if consequent conduct is specified, then the relevant parties must so do.
Austin distinguishes two types of violation of these conditions: violations of A or B result in what he calls misfires – the intended action simply fails to be realized: for example, a policeman cannot say ‘I am arresting you on suspicion of attempted murder’ if no suspect is present; nor (generally speaking) can a person who is not legally empowered to make an arrest utter these words felicitously.
It is important, too, that the addressee play his/her part: in Austin’s terminology there must be uptake where appropriate. For a marriage to take place, for example, to meet the two conditions under B the celebrant must offer the conventionally prescribed words for a church, civil or other ceremony and the partners must, each in turn, show that they accept what is being asked of them (usually by saying ‘I will’ or ‘I do’).
Violations of the C conditions are what Austin terms abuses, and are less obvious because the speech act itself appears to have been performed felicitously. However, if (for example) an apology or forgiveness offered is insincere, or if one party at a wedding ceremony says ‘I will’ without meaning it, the speech act has not been properly performed and the consequences are likely to come to light later on.