Adverbs with manner but not sentential function

A clause can include several adverbs in sentential function, either in different positions or all in the same position. In contrast, there can only be one manner adverb in a clause. Manner adverbs carefully and successfully can both be in either position V or position O; one can say either He carefully constructed the model or He constructed the model carefully, and He successfully constructed the model or He constructed the model successfully. It is not possible to include both carefully and successfully as separate adverbs; one cannot say *He carefully constructed the model successfully or *He successfully constructed the model carefully or *He carefully successfully constructed the model or *He constructed the model carefully successfully. What has to be done is form a complex manner adverb by conjoining two simple manner adverbs—carefully and successfully (or successfully and carefully), then saying He carefully and successfully constructed the model or He constructed the model carefully and successfully.

Adverbs with manner but not sentential function can be conveniently divided into nine sets, these will be discussed in turn.

(1) This set repeats rows (i–l), adverbs which also modify a full NP or an adjective or (save for the derived forms exactly and precisely) an adverb. Quite appears to be pretty well restricted to position V (as in I quite like it) and a-bit to O (I like it a-bit). Rather is preferred in V (I rather like it) but possible in O (I like it rather). The other adverbs may appear in either position.

These adverbs may be used in manner function, mostly with verbs from the LIKING and ANNOYING semantic types. However, their prime role lies in modifying adjectives and adverbs, providing a nuance of augmentation or diminution of the property described by the item they modify. They occur with adjectives of all semantic types, and their derived adverbs (if these exist). For example:

It is important to distinguish the manner adverb rather from the comparative marker would rather — (than —), as in I would rather walk (than run). Whereas the manner adverb rather may not occur with another manner adverb, the comparative marker may, as in I would rather Mary do it carefully (than sloppily).

(2) The items in this set come from row (m) very much, terribly much, awfully much, dreadfully much, incredibly much, among many others. The much is retained when used in manner function (I like it terribly much or I terribly much like it) and when modifying an NP (She is very much a professor), but omitted when modifying an adjective or an adverb. Like the items in set (1), these adverbs are in fact typically used to modify an adjective or an adverb and can occur with all semantic types. A few examples are:

These adverbs may be repeated—for added emphasis—when modifying an adjective or adverb. One can say terribly terribly easy/easily or very very good/well. Or terribly terribly terribly easy/easily or very very very good/well; there is no definite upper limit to the number of repetitions.

In fact, the items in set (2) comprise the main adverbs which may be repeated. Others are quite, from set (1) (as in the new ball gown is quite quite beautiful), too from set (2) (as in You are too too kind) and really and truly from.

(3) This set consists of adverbs which also play a major role in modifying adjectives and adverbs—slightly, somewhat, especially, fairly. For example, slightly warm(ly), somewhat anxious(ly), especially eager(ly), fairly stupid(ly). Unlike the items in sets (1) and (2), they appear not to modify a full NP. In manner function, these adverbs may occur in V or in O position; for example, I somewhat disliked him or I disliked him somewhat. Fairly is used much more in position V (for example, I fairly asked for that, didn’t I?) than in position O.

(4) This set consists of a number of adverbs derived from adjectives of the semantic type DIMENSION, occurring at positions V and O. They do not modify an NP, an adverb or a simple adjective (as opposed to a participial form; for example, a narrowly conceived endeavour). In manner function, they sometimes retain the central meaning of the adjective; for example, She (thickly) sliced the bread (thickly) and He (thinly) spread the margarine (thinly) and He (deeply) dug the hole (deeply). Often, the adverbs take on a metaphorical sense, as in I (deeply) dislike ‘fashion linguistics’ (deeply) and They have (widely) recognized his talent (widely). (The last sentence would more often be in passive form, His talent has been (widely) recognized (widely), with the widely doing away with any need to state the underlying agent.)

Shortly and lengthily—from the DIMENSION adjectives short and long— function only as time adverbs in sentential function. They typically occur with speaking verbs; for example, He spoke lengthily on the topic. Shortly also has the sense ‘soon’ as in He will shortly be announcing his resignation.

(5) This set involves a number of adverbs derived from PHYSICAL PROPERTY and COLOR adjectives. They also typically occur, in V or O slot, with speaking verbs. For example:

Each adverb occurs with a limited range of verbs—for example, one can hotly deny, hotly accuse, hotly assert, hotly interpose—so that these verge on being idiomatic collocations. There are also some uses with other types of verb; for example, hotly pursue. And there are some examples of an adverb retaining the central meaning of the PHYSICAL PROPERTY adjective; for example, fall heavily, lightly rub, handle roughly.

These items appear not to modify NPs or adverbs, but they have limited occurrence as modifiers of adjectives; for example, bitterly jealous.

(6) Adjectives in the semantic type DIFFICULTY behave in a variety of ways with respect to the derivation of adverbs and their properties. Easily has manner function in V and O positions; for example, She (easily) solved the puzzle (easily). There is an adverb difficultly which can be used in a similar manner, but it sounds awkward (perhaps because of the consonant cluster -ltl-) and with difficulty is generally preferred. There is an adverb toughly, but with a low frequency of usage. Hard does not form an adverb since there is a form hardly with a quite different meaning; see set (1) in Corresponding to adjective simple, there is the adverb simply ‘in a simple manner’, which has manner function, as in He explained it simply. This appears to be restricted to O position, probably to avoid confusion with the quite different sentential adverb simply ‘just this and nothing else’, as I was simply asking and He simply can’t do it; this is in row (g).

(7) There are a number of adverbs derived from VALUE adjectives. The main value terms, good and bad, form adverbs well and badly. These may function as manner adverbs but generally only in position O—He wrote the report well/badly but not *He well/badly wrote the report. They may not modify an NP, an adjective, or an adverb. (Note the quite different form badly, meaning ‘a lot’ as in I badly want to go.)

Well (but not badly) may also function as a sentential adverb but with a quite different meaning, ‘most certainly’, as in I well remember that day. Inversion is possible here, similar to that found with some negators, for example, Well might he pretend (carrying an ironic overtone) and Well do I remember that day (note the necessary inclusion of do in this inversion, in the absence of an auxiliary).

Other VALUE adverbs appear also to be restricted to position O; for example, He built it atrociously, She sang it beautifully. They may modify an adjective or an adverb—for example, atrociously unlucky/unluckily—but not an NP. Note that there is some overlap here with set (2); terribly and awfully, for example, are derived from VALUE adjectives.

(8) This set consists of adverbs derived (by -ly) from adjectives which are themselves derived from abstract nouns by the addition of -ful; the nouns include care, sorrow, success and skill. They may function as manner adverbs in positions V or O; for example, He (skillfully) navigated the channel (skillfully). These adverbs do not modify an NP or an adverb but they may sometimes modify an adjective; for example, skillfully adept.

(9) The final set consists of a residue of manner-only adverbs such as drastically (from the adjective drastic) and expertly (from noun expert). These may occur in both V and O positions; for example, The numbers were (drastically) reduced (drastically); and He will be (expertly) overseeing the work (expertly).

Manner adverbs relate to the way in which some action (described by a verb) is performed. There is thus a close semantic association between manner adverb and verb. As a consequence, there is rather limited occurrence of manner adverbs with secondary verbs, which do not directly relate to an activity. For example, a speaker would prefer to say He started to hotly deny it, rather than *He hotly started to deny it, and He wanted to narrowly miss the target, rather than *He narrowly wanted to miss the target.

It was pointed out that the verb in a complement clause following a secondary verb may be omitted, if the nature of the action referred to is clear to the addressee. When describing a bookbinder at work, one could reduce He began binding the grammar of Tariana to He began the grammar of Tariana.

Now a manner adverb such as carefully can be associated with the verb bind:

(58) John began (carefully) binding the grammar of Tariana (carefully)

It is possible in this instance to move the adverb carefully to precede began:

(58a) John carefully began binding the grammar of Tariana

However, in (58a) the adverb carefully is still related to complement clause verb binding. Note that it is not felicitous to omit binding from (58a); one would not—except in a very specific context—say *John carefully began the grammar of Tariana. If a manner adverb is included then the verb to which it relates should be retained (even if the nature of the activity is clear from the context).

Just a few manner adverbs from sets (1) and (2) have the potential to modify directly a secondary verb: for example, I rather/terribly much want to go, and John kind-of made Mary kind-of mess things up.