x
هدف البحث
بحث في العناوين
بحث في المحتوى
بحث في اسماء الكتب
بحث في اسماء المؤلفين
اختر القسم
موافق
Grammar
Tenses
Present
Present Simple
Present Continuous
Present Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous
Past
Past Continuous
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous
Past Simple
Future
Future Simple
Future Continuous
Future Perfect
Future Perfect Continuous
Passive and Active
Parts Of Speech
Nouns
Countable and uncountable nouns
Verbal nouns
Singular and Plural nouns
Proper nouns
Nouns gender
Nouns definition
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
Common nouns
Collective nouns
Definition Of Nouns
Verbs
Stative and dynamic verbs
Finite and nonfinite verbs
To be verbs
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Auxiliary verbs
Modal verbs
Regular and irregular verbs
Action verbs
Adverbs
Relative adverbs
Interrogative adverbs
Adverbs of time
Adverbs of place
Adverbs of reason
Adverbs of quantity
Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of affirmation
Adjectives
Quantitative adjective
Proper adjective
Possessive adjective
Numeral adjective
Interrogative adjective
Distributive adjective
Descriptive adjective
Demonstrative adjective
Pronouns
Subject pronoun
Relative pronoun
Reflexive pronoun
Reciprocal pronoun
Possessive pronoun
Personal pronoun
Interrogative pronoun
Indefinite pronoun
Emphatic pronoun
Distributive pronoun
Demonstrative pronoun
Pre Position
Preposition by function
Time preposition
Reason preposition
Possession preposition
Place preposition
Phrases preposition
Origin preposition
Measure preposition
Direction preposition
Contrast preposition
Agent preposition
Preposition by construction
Simple preposition
Phrase preposition
Double preposition
Compound preposition
Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunction
Correlative conjunction
Coordinating conjunction
Conjunctive adverbs
Interjections
Express calling interjection
Grammar Rules
Preference
Requests and offers
wishes
Be used to
Some and any
Could have done
Describing people
Giving advices
Possession
Comparative and superlative
Giving Reason
Making Suggestions
Apologizing
Forming questions
Since and for
Directions
Obligation
Adverbials
invitation
Articles
Imaginary condition
Zero conditional
First conditional
Second conditional
Third conditional
Reported speech
Linguistics
Phonetics
Phonology
Semantics
Pragmatics
Linguistics fields
Syntax
Morphology
Semantics
pragmatics
History
Writing
Grammar
literature
Reading Comprehension
Elementary
Intermediate
Advanced
Pitch in NigP
المؤلف: Ben Elugbe
المصدر: A Handbook Of Varieties Of English Phonology
الجزء والصفحة: 838-46
2024-05-08
65
The use to which a language puts pitch determines whether it is a tone language or a non-tonal one. In Pike’s famous definition of a tone language (1948), we are told that a tone language is one that makes significant use of pitch on every syllable. By this definition, it is to be expected that pitch differences in individual syllables may be lexically or even grammatically significant. Lexical use of pitch is seen in Yoruba:
These examples show that a variation on a syllable can cause a change in lexical meaning. In (4) and (5) from , a North-central Edoid language of the Benue-Congo family in Edo State of Nigeria, we find that a similar change in the pitch of a syllable results in a change of grammatical meaning:
It should be noted that the case for the significance of pitch on every syllable is still valid even where these minimal pairs or sets do not exist – provided a change of pitch leads to some kind of change, including to an unacceptable (i.e. meaningless) utterance. Mafeni (1971) subjected NigP to this test and concluded that it is a tone language with two tones (low and high) because of lexical examples cited below:
Mafeni also suggested what might be called a tone rule by which monosyllabic high-tone words are realized on a falling pitch pre-pausally. Sentences (6) and (7) exemplify such falling pitch:
However, the way NigP uses pitch does not fit that of a tone language. In languages such as English, pitch variations cover whole phrases, clauses or sentences. Moreover, pitch variations do not alter the basic lexical composition of an utterance. Thus the word ‘Yes’, said with a variety of pitch variations, remains ‘Yes’. This type of language is called an intonation language. English, from which NigP is derived (it is NigP’s superstrate), also operates a stress system and there is some evidence that NigP equates stress with high pitch. For example, tense and aspect markers are not normally stressed in English: similarly in NigP, such markers are not said on a high pitch whereas full verbs are (compare 8a and c, as well as 8b and d):
There seems little doubt that NigP employs pitch for intonation along lines similar to what English does. For example in sentences 8(a)–(d) above intonation differences can change a statement into a question:
Note that the high of (9a) is even higher or still rising in (9c) while the falling high of (9b) now lacks a fall and is even higher and rising.
Elugbe and Omamor (1991: 85) suggest that NigP is something of a pitch-accent language in which, given a word there may be only one high tone, or one sequence thereof in opposition to one low sequence:
Exceptions to the above pattern are words taken directly from local languages and not adapted into the NigP sound system. Elements of a similar analysis are to be found in Mafeni’s suggestion that high-tone syllables in NigP are normally more heavily stressed than low-tone ones. In other words, the high tone may be correlated with (strong) stress while the low tone is correlated with weak stress (or a lack of it?). However, in a word such as miraku for example there are three pitch levels of which the first is the highest and the last is the lowest. The same applies to the word in which the pitch descends from the high of through the mid of ri to the low of ti. Such examples show that after the accented syllable, a kind of ‘downdrift’, such as characterizes statement intonation in English, occurs also in NigP. That is the reason that Mafeni claimed that the intonation of NigP is very similar to that of English.
Another issue raised by Mafeni is of rhythm. He describes NigP as a “syllable-timed” language in which “The syllables constituting a stretch of utterance occur isochronously and tend to be of equal duration” (1971: 109). In this respect as in Nigerian languages which form the substrate for NigP, every syllable is as prominent as the other and the weakening of syllables as we see in a stress language such as English does not occur.