x
هدف البحث
بحث في العناوين
بحث في المحتوى
بحث في اسماء الكتب
بحث في اسماء المؤلفين
اختر القسم
موافق
Grammar
Tenses
Present
Present Simple
Present Continuous
Present Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous
Past
Past Continuous
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous
Past Simple
Future
Future Simple
Future Continuous
Future Perfect
Future Perfect Continuous
Passive and Active
Parts Of Speech
Nouns
Countable and uncountable nouns
Verbal nouns
Singular and Plural nouns
Proper nouns
Nouns gender
Nouns definition
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
Common nouns
Collective nouns
Definition Of Nouns
Verbs
Stative and dynamic verbs
Finite and nonfinite verbs
To be verbs
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Auxiliary verbs
Modal verbs
Regular and irregular verbs
Action verbs
Adverbs
Relative adverbs
Interrogative adverbs
Adverbs of time
Adverbs of place
Adverbs of reason
Adverbs of quantity
Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of affirmation
Adjectives
Quantitative adjective
Proper adjective
Possessive adjective
Numeral adjective
Interrogative adjective
Distributive adjective
Descriptive adjective
Demonstrative adjective
Pronouns
Subject pronoun
Relative pronoun
Reflexive pronoun
Reciprocal pronoun
Possessive pronoun
Personal pronoun
Interrogative pronoun
Indefinite pronoun
Emphatic pronoun
Distributive pronoun
Demonstrative pronoun
Pre Position
Preposition by function
Time preposition
Reason preposition
Possession preposition
Place preposition
Phrases preposition
Origin preposition
Measure preposition
Direction preposition
Contrast preposition
Agent preposition
Preposition by construction
Simple preposition
Phrase preposition
Double preposition
Compound preposition
Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunction
Correlative conjunction
Coordinating conjunction
Conjunctive adverbs
Interjections
Express calling interjection
Grammar Rules
Preference
Requests and offers
wishes
Be used to
Some and any
Could have done
Describing people
Giving advices
Possession
Comparative and superlative
Giving Reason
Making Suggestions
Apologizing
Forming questions
Since and for
Directions
Obligation
Adverbials
invitation
Articles
Imaginary condition
Zero conditional
First conditional
Second conditional
Third conditional
Reported speech
Linguistics
Phonetics
Phonology
Semantics
Pragmatics
Linguistics fields
Syntax
Morphology
Semantics
pragmatics
History
Writing
Grammar
literature
Reading Comprehension
Elementary
Intermediate
Advanced
Early development in the New Guinea Area
المؤلف: Geoff P. Smith
المصدر: A Handbook Of Varieties Of English Phonology
الجزء والصفحة: 711-40
2024-04-29
49
At the end of the indentured labor schemes in the early years of the 20th century, laborers on the Samoan plantations were returned home. Most were initially repatriated to centres in Rabaul in East New Britain, or the Duke of York Islands, lying between New Britain and New Ireland in the Bismarck Archipelago (Mühlhäusler 1978). From there they were taken back to their home areas unless involved in local labour schemes. Further isolation from other south-west Pacific varieties led to considerable influence from the Austronesian languages of New Britain and New Ireland, especially in the lexicon, but also in grammatical structures. Features of the grammar of the early pidgin are also likely to have been reinforced if similar to structures widely present in local languages.
As noted, Papua New Guinea is an area of great linguistic diversity. A survey by the Summer Institute of Linguistics (Grimes 1992) lists over 860 languages currently spoken in a population of 4–5 million. At the beginning of the 20th century, poor communication and contact were the rule, with traditional trading activities operating along a complex though limited network of contacts. The upsurge in activities from overseas missions, traders and administrators led to an acute need for a language of wider communication, and the newly formed pidgin of the Samoan plantations, now fairly widely known, fitted ideally. In the monolingual Samoan society, however, it was no longer of any use, and soon died out there. The development of New Guinea Pidgin English thus proceeded in German-occupied New Guinea, and as it stabilized and expanded, it came under two influences not present in other varieties in Solomon Islands and New Hebrides.
The first of these was the language of the colonial power, German. A number of lexical items of German origin were adopted, especially in certain lexical fields, such as those related to education, woodworking, agriculture and so on, where German missionaries were intimately involved with the local population. Perhaps of equal significance was the fact that the English-lexicon pidgin was now effectively removed from further contact with its lexifier language.
The second influence on the stabilizing pidgin on the north coast of Mainland New Guinea was a substratum of non-Austronesian or Papuan languages. The languages of the Central Pacific as well as New Hebrides and Solomon Islands are almost uniformly Austronesian, and Austronesian languages are also dominant in the islands to the north and east of mainland New Guinea (Manus, New Britain, New Ireland and Bougainville). However, in parts of these areas, and most of the New Guinea mainland, the typologically different Papuan languages are spoken beyond a number of coastal enclaves of Austronesian speakers. The early pidgins exhibited a number of features typical of Austronesian languages, which tend to be reinforced by Austronesian-speaking populations, but there was little pressure to maintain exotic syntactic distinctions in non-Austronesian speaking areas. A good example of this is the so-called predicate marker i, which accords with the grammars of many Austronesian languages, and is thus retained in the Tok Pisin in these areas, but is routinely ignored in many non-Austronesian-speaking areas. Reesink (1990) has shown that some substrate syntactic features such as switch reference patterns and subordination are reflected in parallel differences in the Tok Pisin spoken in the area.