We have spent a considerable time discussing conservative forces; what about nonconservative forces? We shall take a deeper view of this than is usual, and state that there are no nonconservative forces! As a matter of fact, all the fundamental forces in nature appear to be conservative. This is not a consequence of Newton’s laws. In fact, so far as Newton himself knew, the forces could be nonconservative, as friction apparently is. When we say friction apparently is, we are taking a modern view, in which it has been discovered that all the deep forces, the forces between the particles at the most fundamental level, are conservative.

If, for example, we analyze a system like that great globular star cluster that we saw a picture of, with the thousands of stars all interacting, then the formula for the total potential energy is simply one term plus another term, etc., summed over all pairs of stars, and the kinetic energy is the sum of the kinetic energies of all the individual stars. But the globular cluster as a whole is drifting in space too, and, if we were far enough away from it and did not see the details, could be thought of as a single object. Then if forces were applied to it, some of those forces might end up driving it forward as a whole, and we would see the center of the whole thing moving. On the other hand, some of the forces can be, so to speak, “wasted” in increasing the kinetic or potential energy of the “particles” inside. Let us suppose, for instance, that the action of these forces expands the whole cluster and makes the particles move faster. The total energy of the whole thing is really conserved, but seen from the outside with our crude eyes which cannot see the confusion of motions inside, and just thinking of the kinetic energy of the motion of the whole object as though it were a single particle, it would appear that energy is not conserved, but this is due to a lack of appreciation of what it is that we see. And that, it turns out, is the case: the total energy of the world, kinetic plus potential, is a constant when we look closely enough.

When we study matter in the finest detail at the atomic level, it is not always easy to separate the total energy of a thing into two parts, kinetic energy and potential energy, and such separation is not always necessary. It is almost always possible to do it, so let us say that it is always possible, and that the potential-plus-kinetic energy of the world is constant. Thus, the total potential-plus-kinetic energy inside the whole world is constant, and if the “world” is a piece of isolated material, the energy is constant if there are no external forces. But as we have seen, some of the kinetic and potential energy of a thing may be internal, for instance the internal molecular motions, in the sense that we do not notice it. We know that in a glass of water everything is jiggling around, all the parts are moving all the time, so there is a certain kinetic energy inside, which we ordinarily may not pay any attention to. We do not notice the motion of the atoms, which produces heat, and so we do not call it kinetic energy, but heat is primarily kinetic energy. Internal potential energy may also be in the form, for instance, of chemical energy: when we burn gasoline energy is liberated because the potential energies of the atoms in the new atomic arrangement are lower than in the old arrangement. It is not strictly possible to treat heat as being pure kinetic energy, for a little of the potential gets in, and vice versa for chemical energy, so we put the two together and say that the total kinetic and potential energy inside an object is partly heat, partly chemical energy, and so on. Anyway, all these different forms of internal energy are sometimes considered as “lost” energy in the sense described above; this will be made clearer when we study thermodynamics.

As another example, when friction is present it is not true that kinetic energy is lost, even though a sliding object stops and the kinetic energy seems to be lost. The kinetic energy is not lost because, of course, the atoms inside are jiggling with a greater amount of kinetic energy than before, and although we cannot see that, we can measure it by determining the temperature. Of course, if we disregard the heat energy, then the conservation of energy theorem will appear to be false.

Another situation in which energy conservation appears to be false is when we study only part of a system. Naturally, the conservation of energy theorem will appear not to be true if something is interacting with something else on the outside and we neglect to take that interaction into account.

In classical physics potential energy involved only gravitation and electricity, but now we have nuclear energy and other energies also. Light, for example, would involve a new form of energy in the classical theory, but we can also, if we want to, imagine that the energy of light is the kinetic energy of a photon.

مواضيع ذات صلة

The Doppler effect

Finding the “apparent” motion

Series and parallel impedances

Analogs in physics

Oscillations in linear systems

Damped oscillations

The energy of an oscillator

The forced oscillator with damping

Complex numbers and harmonic motion

Forced oscillations

Initial conditions for Harmonic motion and circular motion

Harmonic motion and circular motion